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The European Phenomenon and Christianity
The Nature of This Text
In March 2020, I decided to update the Christianitas subpage. It is dedicated to my project The European Phenomenon and Christianity. The new format of the page serves as a guide to the texts already written but is increasingly becoming an independent text. While it remains an informational resource for the entire project, it can also be read on its own.
The central question of the entire project is: why, do the Church and Christianity play the role of the major variables explaining the civilizational explosion that began in Europe during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, while other factors (*) serve as the stage where everything unfolds, playing the role of the background or secondary explanatory variables?
(*) These include the Byzantine buffer, European multi-centered topography, Greek and Arab science, Eastern technologies and intercultural exchange, multi-centeredness of Europe, climate warming, the cultures of migrating peoples, and the relationship between the Church and secular authorities.
March 2020 open pdf version / download
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Spis treści / Contents
What are Christianitas and the European Phenomenon?
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Christianitas – This term was used by the inhabitants of Europe to describe European civilization when Christianity was widely recognized as the fundamental marker of our cultural identity, which, in practice, was from around the 9th century onward.
The European Phenomenon – This term refers, in the study of history, to the civilizational flourishing of Europe starting from the 11th–12th centuries. Over the following several hundred years, Europe outpaced other civilizations economically, scientifically, and technologically, even though these civilizations were previously far more developed than Europe.
I am conducting a project on the role of Christianity in the emergence of this phenomenon. I have selected three domains for study: modern science, modern technology, and the Western market economy. While these do not encompass the entirety of the European phenomenon, it is impossible to imagine Europe’s rise to global leadership without them. They were what made Europe unique in its encounters with others.
Concept of the Book – Introductory Information
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Core Idea
PDF Why the Church and Christianity are so important in explicating the European Miracle?
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By choosing the Church and Christian doctrine as the lens through which we view the emergence of the European phenomenon, we gain one of the best vantage points in history. Examining the numerous connections reveals that no other factor influenced the emergence of the European phenomenon as broadly or deeply. The Church and Christian doctrine were sometimes direct co-creators, sometimes catalysts that energized and directed historical change, sometimes models through example, financial motivators, or promise of salvation, and occasionally filters or barriers.
In precisely this sense, Christianity and the Church were important, if not the most important, factors in shaping modern European civilization. To expand on this, the most significant factor is the one that, having found a suitable environment, makes the fullest use of the cultural material at hand. It builds a structure according to its plan and imparts significant developmental dynamism to the surrounding environment. It instills ambitions, dreams, and optimism in society that guide growth for millennia and inspire other cultures with its worldview.
I could also frame this idea metaphorically. The elements of a necklace are not a necklace without a thread to string them together. But the thread alone is not enough; the beads are essential to create the necklace. Similarly, Christianity served as the religious, cultural, and ideological thread that shaped, unified, and combined into an organized whole the remarkably diverse components—from Aeschylus’s dramas and Justinian’s Code to water mills, Viking pirate traditions, and St. Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica. What astonishes is the strength of this thread and its creative potential.
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Presentation Style
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The book has an open structure. Although the narrative follows a traditional format—introduction, main idea, general overview of the European phenomenon, followed by sections on science, technology, and the economy—what initially seemed a purely provisional form for online presentation has turned out to have many advantages. This is evident in this text, which briefly describes the entire project. The description of the book’s concept and fundamental ideas is interspersed with links to 27 texts that explore specific topics in greater depth.
Readers can explore the concept by reading this text (online or as a PDF) and, if they choose, exploring further the linked materials. This gives readers the freedom to decide what to read while allowing the author to continuously add updates, revisions, and changes. The book is still a work in progress. Several texts are yet to be completed, but the structure of the project is already visible, and readers can explore its various aspects.
Briefly on the role of the Church and Christianity in setting up early modern technology and science
The Role of the Church in Medieval Technological Progress
PDF The Influence of the Church and Christianity on Technical Progress in Medieval Europe
In the field of technology, the Middle Ages was an extraordinarily creative era. The prevailing view in the literature is that Christianity and the Church played a significant role in stimulating technological development in Europe. In my view, they played a leading role, as my analysis considers a broader range of interactions than most others (see my article: The Influence of the Church and Christianity on Technical Progress in Medieval Europe. (see here).
The Church contributed in several ways: it participated directly in fostering innovation and technological development (notably through the substantial role of Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries); it created technological demand, supported financially by the Church (e.g., investments in sacred constructions and civil engineering); it facilitated the formation of human capital and the circulation of knowledge (e.g., vocational education, systematic exchange of information, pilgrimages); and it laid the institutional foundations of the market economy (e.g., self-governing grassroots corporations, the development of modern legal systems, normative pacification, and the introduction of written documentation).
Additionally, the Church played an major role in ideologically unifying Europe, transforming a politically divided continent into a culturally cohesive entity. These contributions helped establish a pro-innovation climate, creating the conditions for assimilating foreign practices and fostering the technological ingenuity of European society. This unique element set Europe apart, as grassroots creativity found both understanding and support from the Church—a powerful institution responsible for the religious legitimization of worldly realities (including social order).
The high level of innovativeness in medieval Europe was also influenced by external factors, such as the continent’s topography, the impact of incoming cultures, the importation of distant technologies, the ancient and Muslim heritage, and the protection of Europe’s eastern flank by Byzantium. However, without the Church’s consistent approval, which functioned as an ideological hegemon, most external factors could not have been as effective as they were.
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The Origins of Modern Science
Modern science emerged in Europe between the 11th and 17th centuries, shaped by numerous factors often categorized as internal and external. Internal factors include the evolution of ideas, views, and theories, representing centuries of work by the scientific community. External factors encompass the creation of conditions and infrastructure without which the scientific community could not have developed or functioned.
When considering external factors—economic, political, social, organizational, and geopolitical (see my text: Medieval Roots of Modern Science)—the Church’s pivotal role is indisputable. Analyzing internal factors reveals that the emergence of modern science resulted from a clash between theological and doctrinal principles and the assimilated legacy of ancient and Muslim science (mediated through the Church). For more, see my reviews of works by Butterfield, Grant, Jaki, Shapin, and Woods see Reviews as well as my article Historiography of Science and Religion
Between the 11th and 12th centuries, external factors created a New Environment, that elevated the status of intellectual work. Scientific activity increased in the 12th and 13th centuries, culminating in the Rationalist Turn, which emphasized the role of natural causes in the study of physical phenomena. As universities absorbed ancient knowledge, their interaction with Christian doctrine led to a Metaphysical Awakening (13th–15th centuries). Doctrinal (theological) assumptions used to describe the world were clearly defined and became the building blocks of the Dogmatic Corridor, which charted an acceptable course for academic exploration. The Church’s authority and temporal power safeguarded this framework.
The Dogmatic Corridor laid the groundwork for medieval thought to progress toward a new method, goal, and subject matter for science. The necessary ingredients for modern science were created but had not yet coalesced into a unified whole.
It took time for key areas of medieval natural philosophy, such as astronomy and physics, to use these elements to construct theories that dismantled old concepts while building new ones. This process led to the Great Deconstructions – works of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler.
These turning points describe, rather than fully explain, the emergence of modern science. To explain its rise, one must account for the Catholic Church’s unique approach to intellectual efforts. Science and knowledge were perceived as gifts from God, granting them an honorary status as pillars of Christianity. For this reason, the Church built a vast scientific infrastructure and financed scientific endeavors.
At the same time, science enjoyed considerable autonomy because, until the 13th century, there was a prevailing belief that science and faith (theology) were fundamentally aligned, both interpreting the same divine work: theology through the Book of Revelation and science through the Book of Nature. Moreover, Christianity’s dogmatic foundations lacked intrinsic barriers to the transition from Aristotelian scholasticism to the Great Deconstructions of the early modern period. On the contrary, theological catalysts facilitated this transition.
Additionally, science proved valuable to the Church in its competitive and cooperative relationships with secular authorities.
Idea for This Book – How It All Began?
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This book on the European Phenomenon is a follow-up to my previous work, Western Civilization and Time.
In Western Civilization and Time, I demonstrated that over the last hundred years, time has become one of the dominant social values. This is evident in the growing sense of compulsion and the human drive to Act-Ever-Faster and Live-Longer-and-Longer. These priorities are now at the forefront of our civilization, measurable through statistical data. For several decades, they have driven the most significant changes in the allocation of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A growing portion of GDP is devoted to fulfilling these preferences, and this segment is expanding faster than any other component of GDP.
Looking into the past, we can identify clear connections between the current valuation of time and the historical processes of secularization and modernization.
Time as a value is reflected in our increasing willingness to pay a higher price for additional years of life and for achieving more in less time during the daily economic race. These twin priorities—living ever longer and acting ever faster—are steering our culture in unexpected directions. The desire to live longer and accomplish everything faster seems boundless. Consequently, we are seriously questioning whether death is truly inevitable, as rapid advancements suggest that endless life may soon appear within reach.
This is where Western Civilization and Time concluded, but it left open another question: what was the origin of a civilization capable of prioritizing such values?
The new book seeks to explore this question, arguing that it is difficult to imagine a civilization that now emphasizes Longer and Faster priorities emerging without the foundational influence of Christianity and the Church.
Book Structure, Parts Already Finished, and Those in Working Versions for Further Discussion
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The book is divided into four parts, each focusing on:
- An overall presentation of the European Phenomenon, and
- The influence of the medieval Church and Christianity on:
- Technological progress,
- The emergence of modern science, and
- The development of a European market economy.
The book has an open structure, designed to present these topics from multiple complementary perspectives. The presentation is non-linear, with individual sections being self-contained.
So far, 610 pages have been completed, with the final volume expected to reach approximately 800 pages.
Part I: Presentation of the Historical European Phenomenon
The historical European phenomenon, or how Europe outstripped Asia (Historyczny fenomen europejski, czyli jak Europa prześcignęła Azję) An introductory text offering a synthetic overview of the ongoing debate on the historical European Phenomenon, the rise of Western civilization, and the revisionist critique of Europe’s and the West’s historical achievements.
Church and Christianity in the making of the European identity (Rola chrześcijaństwa i Kościoła w europeizacji Europy) A working paper (a fragment of my new book) discussing the medieval Europeanization of Europe. It examines the role of Christianity and the Church in Europe’s rise to world dominance. The analysis begins with a reflection on how Europe emerged as a distinct and integrated civilizational unit and the Church’s role in this process. This includes a brief discussion of the literature on the topic, featuring a ranking of 27 authors based on their assessments of the significance of Christianity and the Church. The paper also describes two stages of integration: 5th–8th centuries: Religious homogenization, 8th–13th centuries: Cultural homogenization, including the separation of sacred and secular spheres during the Gregorian Revolution (11th–12th centuries).
Western Civilization: A Polemic with Revisionist Critics of the West (Cywilizacja zachodnia: polemika z krytykami Zachodu) An essay based on Ricardo Duchesne’s book The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. The book includes a critical analysis of the revisionist trend in World History, which tends to diminish or deny the significance of Europe’s historic achievements in the economy, science, and technology.
The European Miracle (Cud europejski) A review and synopsis of The European Miracle, one of the most important books on the European Phenomenon, written by Eric L. Jones.
Douglass North’s vision of the historic rise of the West (Douglassa Northa wizja historycznego rozkwitu Zachodu) An essay presenting some of the fundamental theorems of New Institutional Economics and their application to analyzing cases in economic history. This piece complements Douglass North’s Paradox of the West by uncovering the theoretical assumptions underlying his approach.
Additional Texts and Discussions. In addition to the above, I have translated Douglass C. North’s renowned text (Paradox of the West, with a link to the original English version) and discussed several other significant works. These pieces may not be included in the final book but are worth considering:
Douglass C. North, Paradoks Zachodu (Paradox of West)
Jerzy Kłoczowski, Europa. Chrześcijańskie korzenie (Europe: Christian roots)
Marcel Simon, Cywilizacja wczesnego chrześcijaństwa (Civilization of ancient Christianity)
Thomas Woods, Jak Kościół katolicki zbudował cywilizację zachodnią (How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization)
Part II: The Role of the Church and Christianity in the Technological Development of Medieval Europe
The Influence of the Church and Christianity on Technological Progress in Medieval Europe (Wpływ Kościoła i chrześcijaństwa na postęp techniczny w Europie średniowiecznej). This section presents a comprehensive overview of the influence of the Church and Christian doctrine on technological progress. It includes an estimation of the contributions of ecclesiastical and secular innovations to medieval technological advancements, an attempt to reconstruct the Church’s policy of fostering a pro-innovation climate, and a discussion of related topics.
Medieval agricultural revolution in numbers (Średniowieczna rewolucja rolnicza w liczbach) An Article on the origin of resources that enabled Europe to chase great powers of the time (China, India, Islam states). Calculations are presented to show the roots and scale of the resources acquired thanks to the agrarian growth in IX-XIV centuries
Watermills and windmills. Medieval power industry (Młyny i wiatraki. Energetyka przemysłowa Średniowiecza) When we discourse about medieval watermills and windmills, we are talking about creating in Europe the first energy infrastructure on this scale in the world for the needs of the emerging industry. The energy supplied by mills and windmills has launched, among others, textile, clothing, wood, mining, metal, construction, agri-food processing, paper and tanning industries.
Medieval merchant ships (Średniowieczne statki handlowe) The book portrays the evolution of European merchant ships constructions over the period from the 1st to the 16th century. It’s a study of the history of technology with elements of economic history. Maritime transport is considered one of the most important tools for creating the power of Europe. It integrated remote areas; commercial shipping recorded the largest increase in productivity among all economic fields. It was a significant impeller and creator of technical progress; ships of Europe were the vehicles disseminating European cultural patterns, methods of life organization, tools, weapons, plants, religions, political ideas, people and diseases throughout the world. Bibliography is available on request.
What speeds up and what hinders technical progress. On historical determinants of innovation (Co przyspiesza a co hamuje postęp techniczny. O historycznych uwarunkowaniach innowacyjności) Extensive commentary to Joel Mokyr’s book “The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress”. Analysis of factors recognized in the literature as important in stimulating or inhibiting technical progress.
History of technology: first readings recommended (Historia technologii – sugestie, od czego zacząć lektury) Reflections on the history of technology need to be based on some knowledge of factual material. I present twelve books worth reading. Most of them are recommended in university courses of history of technology. Among the authors are Frances and Joseph Gies, James MacLachan, Ian McNeil, Lewis Mumford, Bryan Bunch, Alexander Hellemans, Daniel Headrick, James McClellan and Harold Dorn.
In addition to the literature mentioned above, I have discussed two very interesting and important texts. They probably won’t be a part of the book, but it’s worth keeping them in mind. Those are:
Arnold Pacey. Technology In World Civilization
Part III The role of Church and Christianity in the emergence of early modern science
Medieval Roots of Modern Science: The Influence of Cultural and Social Milieu on the Emergence of Science, and the Role of the Church (Średniowieczne korzenie nauki nowożytnej: wpływ otoczenia na powstanie nauki i rola Kościoła). This section discusses Edward Grant’s theory on the medieval roots of science and further explores external factors that shaped the conditions for science, forming its organizational, economic, social, and political milieu. The text presents historical, geopolitical, social, organizational, political, and economic factors, as well as the Church’s role in influencing each of these areas.
Historiography of Science and Religion (Nauka a religia: historiografia problemu) This section elaborates on the evolution of historians’ and sociologists’ views from 1874 to 2010 regarding the appropriate way to describe the historical relationship between science and religion. Key concepts that marked milestones in this evolution are presented, beginning with the 19th-century works of Draper and White, which framed these relations as a centuries-long conflict, and ending with the currently prevailing paradigm, which recognizes religion as an important co-creative element in the development of modern science.
Non-empirical foundations of empirical sciences (Nieempiryczne fundamenty nauk empirycznych). Text in the working version. The twentieth-century philosophy of science, despite all discrepancies, is characterized by the common thought that statements which do not have empirical status, i.e. do not succumb to the falsification procedure, play some role in the creation of scientific theories. In the philosophy of science, such statements are commonly called metaphysical judgments. These non-empirical metaphysical statements are considered to be external to a scientific theory (for example, Carnap, Popper), internal, i.e. are the immanent part of a theory (for example, Lakatos) or accepted by agreement of scholarly communities (for example, Kuhn, Kitcher, and Longino). This surprising consensus of so often extremely different theories of science strongly legitimizes Christianity as a possible co-creative element of modern science.
Non-Empirical Foundations of Empirical Sciences (Nieempiryczne fundamenty nauk empirycznych). This section is a working draft and is not currently published on the site. Twentieth-century philosophy of science, despite its internal disagreements, is unified by a common idea: non-empirical statements—those not subject to empirical falsification—play a role in the development of scientific theories. In the philosophy of science, such statements are typically referred to as metaphysical judgments. These non-empirical metaphysical statements are considered: external to scientific theory (e.g., Carnap, Popper); internal, forming an immanent part of the theory (e.g., Lakatos); socially agreed upon by scholarly communities (e.g., Kuhn, Kitcher, and Longino). This surprising consensus across often radically different theories of science lends strong legitimacy to Christianity as a possible co-creative element in the development of modern science.
The Mechanism of the Emergence of Early Modern and Modern Science (Mechanizm powstania nauki wczesnonowożytnej i nowożytnej). Text not yet written. This section will expand on the themes discussed above. It will detail the key stages in the development of science, including:The creation of a New Environment (10th–12th centuries); The Rationalist Turn (12th–13th centuries); The Metaphysical Awakening (13th–15th centuries); The construction of the Dogmatic Corridor, and The Great De-Constructions (15th–17th centuries).
In addition to the texts mentioned above, I have written essays on five interesting and important books. They probably won’t be part of the book, but it’s worth keeping them in mind. Those are:
Steven Shapin, Rewolucja naukowa (The Scientific Revolution)
Edward Grant, Średniowieczne podstawy nauki nowożytnej (The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages)
Herbert Butterfield, Rodowód współczesnej nauki 1300- 1800 (The Origins of Modern Science)
Stanley Jaki, Zbawca nauki (The Savior of Science)
Alfred N. Whitehead, Nauka i świat współczesny (Science and the Modern World)
Part IV: The Role of the Church and Christianity in the Rise of Capitalism and the Market Economy
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I have collected the literature on the subject and drafted a working version of the text. Several elements have already been discussed on other occasions.
Why the European economy developed during political disintegration in the 9th-14th centuries. The role of the Church (Dlaczego gospodarka europejska rozwijała się w czasie politycznej dezintegracji. Wieki IX-XIV. Rola Kościoła). (text to be written). Currently, I have briefly addressed this issue in Annex 6 of the paper titled The Influence of the Church and Christianity on Technical Progress in Medieval Europe (Wpływ Kościoła i chrześcijaństwa na postęp techniczny w Europie średniowiecznej). The annex highlights several aspects of the Church’s role in shaping the early modern economy, including the creation and promotion of bottom-up, self-governing corporations and the strategy of normative pacification. This topic will be expanded into an independent study.
Technology and Economic Growth: Accelerators and Brakes. Theories and History – Europe and China (Wzrost gospodarczy: stymulatory i hamulce. Koncepcje i historia – Europa, Chiny, Azja) Text in working version, discusses theories explaining the historical functioning of European and Asian economies, referencing scholars such as E.L. Jones, A. Maddison, D.C. North, and formalized growth theories. It also includes a debate on why the per capita growth of the early modern Chinese economy decelerated (per capita).
Role of shipping in the economic growth of the early modern European economy (Historyczne znaczenie żeglugi we wzroście gospodarczym Europy) At present, this is z chapter of the book on medieval merchant ships.
Invitation to cooperate
The project grows as the work progresses. Those interested in the problems and my vision which could be seen in the texts already written are welcome as working companions. We need many things: to write new texts related to my project, discuss many important articles and books, make editorial work, like bibliographies of texts (those already written or almost finished). Specialists may participate and bring new insight to our discussions at our periodic meetings. I don’t feel the need to be the only author of a nascent work. If you would like to join the writing of new fragments or discussions – feel invited. Willingness, acceptance of the general idea, experience in scientific work, time and that special feeling of connection is all you need.
Responses to my invitation: Jacenty Siewierski, Ryszard Kleszcz, Adam Nowaczyk
In 2017 I met Doctor Jacenty Siewierski. We started working together. Our views on the problem of the role of Christianity in the emergence of Western civilization are identical. He is the author of an excellent work titled “Christianity and the Expansion of Western Civilization”. He agreed to put his book on my page (see here). Dr. Siewierski has a subpage on my website titled Why Europe. Apart from the book, there is a number of his other texts from previous years and some quite fresh. Dr. Siewierski’s works go great with the idea of my project.
In turn, Professor Ryszard Kleszcz has been a good colleague of mine for several decades. He is an excellent philosopher, also in areas of my interest (philosophy of religion and analytical philosophy). His knowledge and humor are invaluable in our discussions, which we organize every few months among people interested in the issues of the Christian roots of the West. Among his many qualities, he has the rare gift of translating complicated problems in a clear way to non-specialists.
Professor Adam Nowaczyk, an outstanding Polish logician and specialist in analytical philosophy, is also the participant in our discussions. He introduces refreshing scepticism to our conversations. How many wonderful, seemingly, ideas couldn’t stand the confrontation with the arguments of colleague Nowaczyk or required a thorough revision! A cold shower of logic always refreshes.
You are invited to join us! (It’s all work and play!